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FGF21:认识和干预糖尿病的新角色 [复制链接]

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发表于 2014-10-10 10:03 |只看该作者 |倒序浏览 |打印

FGF-21:下一个抗糖尿病新药?# M8 j1 q/ N+ q9 I6 B
作者:刘彦隆 冯文科 来源:中国医学论坛报 日期:2011-06-097 K) _7 c$ e/ w5 s* P3 l: c
此文章来源于www.cmt.com.cn

 
6 D8 c+ c7 E- D1 U6 F2 V6 A* P  冯文科教授8 W* D* V- v$ M+ M. `# j6 K  G6 ~

- Q; [7 j6 n2 n- J  冯文科,美国华人糖尿病学会(CADA)会员,美国路易斯维尔大学医学院助理教授。美国心脏学会(AHA)、美国糖尿病学会(ADA)及药理和实验治疗学会会员。担任AHA基金评
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  审人及多种学术期刊的审稿人和述评人。研究曾获得ADA、美国国立卫生研究院(NIH)及肯塔基州政府的资助。
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  刘彦隆,温州医学院和路易斯维尔大学联合培养博士研究生。
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  N7 f. f2 L: f( i( x3 N  FGF-21的作用机制(点击大图)
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2 k1 c& ]2 E4 g8 H7 Q; A  成纤维细胞生长因子(FGF)是由20多个成员组成的一类细胞因子家族,具有促进细胞增殖、机体发育、血管增生、创伤修复等多种生理功能。与大多数FGF主要通过局部作用的方式不同,FGF-19、FGF-21和FGF-23在代谢调控过程中表现出内分泌因子活性,这得益于断裂的β-三叶草区域使其具有较弱的肝素结合能力,有助于扩散至其他部位来发挥作用。由于FGF-21在糖脂代谢调控中具有重要作用,相关研究方兴未艾,其有望成为治疗2型糖尿病的临床药物。8 C' [+ O- s4 b3 h$ M
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  FGF-21的结构3 ]+ D* C. V) k- M
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  FGF-21是最近在鼠胚胎细胞中发现的一个多肽,主要由肝脏分泌,并通过细胞表面受体发挥信号传导作用,从而参与糖脂代谢调节。1 U* p! x' ]. t+ `# V0 F, z0 Q% |

& I- E7 S3 H* K! k8 Z  小鼠FGF-21编码的cDNA含210个氨基酸,其中有一约30个氨基酸组成的疏水性氨基末端,为分泌型蛋白质的典型信号序列。它与其他FGF一样,有一个内核区,其中28个高度保守的氨基酸残基中有10个可以与成纤维细胞生长因子受体(FGFR)相互作用。人FGF-21的编码DNA含209个氨基酸,其序列与鼠的非常相似,约75%的氨基酸相同。" _3 d& b, D0 k

( S2 O& O3 O* j% Z" e4 ^0 |  FGF-21受体由经典的FGF酪氨酸激酶受体和β-klotho构成。体外研究表明,FGF-21主要与FGFR1c/β-klotho结合,但也可以通过其他FGFR亚型发挥作用。虽然FGFR广泛表达,但是β-klotho却特异性表达于白色脂肪、胰腺、肝脏和睾丸中,并主要作用于上述器官。最近一些临床研究也表明,肥胖、2型糖尿病等患者血FGF-21水平存在明显变化,使其逐渐成为糖尿病和肥胖等代谢疾病的研究新热点。
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  FGF-21的生物学功能
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9 o2 l8 F- _% c, C; h' L/ G3 h  FGF-21的生物学功能主要表现为饥饿状态下的代谢调控,同时也是启动酮体生成的主要调节因子。研究表明,包括糖尿病在内的多种疾病患者血FGF-21水平显著升高。
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  长期禁食可通过过氧化物酶体增殖蛋白激活性受体(PPAR)α途径显著诱导小鼠肝脏FGF-21的表达,导致外周FGF-21水平升高,进而促进脂肪组织脂解和脂肪酸向外周释放,肝脏继而吸收脂肪酸并转化为酮体。另有研究表明,FGF-21的这种调控作用可能通过诱导PPAR-γ辅助激活因子(PGC)1α来完成,后者可刺激肝糖异生、脂肪酸氧化和酮体生成。
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  近期研究表明,FGF-21可诱导肝脏分泌胰脂肪酶。由于在低能量代谢状态下,肝脏胰脂肪酶会大量增加,所以FGF-21被认为可能参与了低能量代谢状态的调节。FGF-21转基因小鼠禁食24小时会进入低能量代谢状态,生成大量酮体,而正常小鼠则不会。, C5 p) k8 P' d- ?" K2 n
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  此外,FGF-21转基因小鼠身材瘦小,体重仅为正常小鼠的40%~50%。饥饿主要通过生长激素/胰岛素样生长因子1(GH/IGF-1)途径抑制生长,而FGF-21可以通过减少信号转导子和转录激活因子(STAT)5的活化来显著降低血IGF含量,故FGF-21在饥饿状态下可通过抑制生长来保存能量。噻唑烷二酮类药物(TZD)可以诱导db/db小鼠白色脂肪和3T3-L1脂肪细胞FGF-21的表达。罗格列酮和吡格列酮通过PPAR-γ增加胰岛素敏感性,而白色脂肪中PPAR-γ可以诱导FGF-21表达,因此TZD可能通过FGF-21来发挥作用。
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! N$ g) S7 v: f5 t' Z9 ?& _1 Y  有趣的是,FGF-21的表达存在昼夜节律性:小鼠夜间注射PPAR-α的配体苯扎贝特可明显诱导FGF-21表达,而白天注射则不会出现上述表现。同时,这种调控作用在PPAR-α敲除小鼠中未显现,表明苯扎贝特诱导的FGF-21昼夜表达作用是由肝脏PPAR-α系统的昼夜反应性来决定。
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: ~+ o8 Q: D1 E! }  目前关于人FGF-21的研究已有报道。禁食7天后血FGF-21含量增加,且高甘油三酯血症患者体内FGF-21含量较正常人升高2倍,服用非诺贝特后会进一步增加。这些数据表明,禁食可以诱导人FGF-21的表达,这种作用可能由PPAR-α来调控。另有研究表明,肥胖和2型糖尿病患者血FGF-21水平明显升高,与脂肪、胰岛素和甘油三酯含量呈正相关,但与高密度脂蛋白呈负相关。此外,皮下脂肪FGF-21 mRNA的表达也与血FGF-21含量明显相关,提示脂肪组织可能是血FGF-21的主要来源之一。近期研究还表明,非酒精性脂肪肝、慢性肾病和冠心病患者血FGF-21水平也显著升高。
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9 u, \) v, q, z0 A5 ]6 O  FGF-21的药理学功能6 ?( s$ f( w7 H0 z9 f

- G7 b# _4 \1 {7 u6 r  FGF-21的药理学作用主要体现在糖脂代谢调节方面,有望成为治疗2型糖尿病的临床药物。
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  j1 s  h: X1 F4 p5 z  研究表明,FGF-21对肥胖啮齿类和灵长类动物有明显的代谢调控作用,包括增强胰岛素敏感性、降低甘油三酯含量和减轻体重。高脂饮食诱导的肥胖小鼠注射FGF-21后能增加其脂肪和能量消耗,降低血糖、胰岛素和脂类含量以及肝脏中甘油三酯含量,逆转肝脏脂肪变性并减轻体重近20%。此外,肝脏FGF-21过表达转基因小鼠胰岛素敏感性提高,血糖水平、甘油三酯含量降低,对高脂饮食诱导的肥胖具有明显抑制作用,且用FGF-21重组蛋白处理的糖尿病ob/ob和db/db小鼠以及肥胖ZDF大鼠也可以产生同样效果。
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+ |- A5 V& L! |: G' d, j' P. p# I* V  在恒河猴中完成的药理药效试验进一步证实了FGF-21在灵长类动物中的代谢调控功能。研究结果显示,连续6周每天予以注射FGF-21蛋白,糖尿病恒河猴的血糖、甘油三酯、果糖胺、胰岛素和胰高血糖素水平迅速下降。同时,FGF-21还被发现具有调控脂蛋白的功能,可以改善脂蛋白图谱,包括降低低密度脂蛋白胆固醇水平,升高高密度脂蛋白胆固醇水平,以及适度减轻体重。
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: G0 }; ^9 p7 X8 ^3 A  更值得一提的是,注射FGF-21并不引起啮齿类和灵长类动物低血糖。另有研究表明,FGF-21可以直接作用于胰腺发挥调节作用,免疫染色显示,注射FGF-21的db/db小鼠胰腺中胰岛数量和胰岛中胰岛素含量增多,但FGF-21并不引起胰岛细胞增殖。) x- T. ~8 v5 A8 m9 N; |

$ Y  Q: U2 ]1 y, n' k  ■ 展望
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- B0 w! Q: t0 e) O4 R6 S. E  对FGF-21在代谢性疾病中的作用研究正在成为学术界的新热点。尽管自2005年以来,关于FGF-21的研究论文数量连年翻番,但是对其作用机理的了解尚处于初级阶段。许多基本的科学问题仍有待回答。 目前有几种不同形态的FGF-21正处于临床研究前期阶段,关于FGF-21结构与功能的体外研究也已取得较大进展,且FGF-21的药理作用在动物试验中表现出很好的一致性和可重复性。更重要的是,试验已证实了TZD可以影响FGF-21及其受体表达,表明此类药物可能部分通过FGF-21信号通路发挥抗糖尿病作用。此外,尽管FGF-21药理作用强大,但某些动物可能存在FGF-21抵抗,因此研发更有效的FGF-21激动剂将有利于克服潜在的FGF-21抵抗。正在进行的临床试验和不断深入的基础研究将为开发对代谢性疾病具有治疗价值的FGF-21激动剂提供可靠的依据。


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FGF21:认识和干预糖尿病的新角色


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        基础研究是推动临床进展的源头。目前正在研究中的FGF21、脂联素以及A-FABP等其他因子都有可能在未来成为干预糖尿病的新靶点。$ j6 y' m4 p3 H) d' ^6 w
        成纤维细胞生长因子(FGF)家族至少由22个成员组成,它们具有多种生物学活性,其应用研究十分广泛。其中,FGF21是日本学者于2000年发现的FGF家族的一个新成员。FGF21主要在肝脏中特异性表达,肾脏和脂肪组织中也有表达。已有研究表明,FGF21是一种非常有意义的保护糖代谢稳态的细胞因子,其生物学功能主要体现在糖脂代谢调控方面,具有与胰岛素类似的作用。" K; S, `/ B7 K9 l$ {
        动物实验初显降糖良效, I2 g& a9 U8 o) |& z: {6 f/ s+ p
        在动物实验中,FGF21已被证实能够降低血糖、血脂,抑制胰高血糖素分泌,促进胰岛素分泌,提高胰岛素敏感性,改善胰腺β细胞功能及存活率,调节血液循环中脂肪细胞因子。还有研究表明,FGF21能降低血浆白介素-8、C反应蛋白、纤溶酶原激活剂抑制因子-1水平,升高脂联素水平。此外,FGF21还可通过血脑屏障。为此,有人认为FGF21在将来有望成为一种新型降糖药。
1 o1 N9 _" R7 C! O' J, K" X        2007年Inagaki等进行的研究中,小鼠在PPARα激动剂(GW)作用下,肝脏的FGF21表达升高了约25倍;在空腹状态下,FGF21表达升高了约28倍。研究发现FGF21基因启动子区域有PPARα的结合位点,可见FGF21是PPARα信号传导的下游分子。此外,在PPARα敲除的小鼠中,FGF21的表达也升高了约5倍,可见除PPARα, FGF21可能还受到其他基因调控。同年Reitman等研究也发现,生理状态下FGF21参与人体对饥饿状态的适应过程,FGF21具有促进脂解、促进酮体合成的作用。
& N" s3 T, ?) P# o6 B  ^        FGF21还能抵抗饮食诱导肥胖的发生。2005年Kharitonenkov等对FGF21转基因小鼠进行高脂、低纤维、高碳水化合物饮食喂养发现,FGF21是一个重要的代谢调控分子,对糖脂代谢都具有有益作用。ob/ob小鼠在被注射了重组人FGF21以后,空腹血糖和甘油三酯都显著下降。过表达FGF21的转基因小鼠相比对照组,体重、空腹血糖、进食量和瘦素水平都显著下降。2007年他们在糖尿病恒河猴模型也得到了相似的结论。这些意味着FGF21具有明显的降血糖作用,且起效慢、作用强、持续时间长,并能通过减轻体重来改善胰岛素抵抗。有报道认为FGF21是通过促进能量消耗来发挥作用的,但其具体机制还需要进一步研究。
; F  t# ^& \/ P* k% G7 h3 S         2006年Wente等研究证明,FGF21可以通过激活细胞外信号调节激酶1/2和Akt信号通路来提高胰腺β细胞的活性,并对胰腺β细胞产生保护作用。在这项实验中,db/db小鼠在重组FGF21干预下,胰岛中胰岛素含量、胰岛数目和胰岛β细胞数目都显著增加。更重要的是,无论是患有糖尿病的、健康的、还是转基因的小鼠,使用任何剂量的FGF21均不会诱导细胞有丝分裂和低血糖,表明FGF21可以保护β细胞,防止β细胞凋亡,对治疗2 型糖尿病有一定的效果。2009年Badman等研究发现,肝脏特异性FGF21基因敲除的小鼠发生了脂肪肝,并表现出酮体产生和血糖控制受损,从另一侧面体现了FGF21在脂肪肝与糖代谢异常间的作用。, Y' {$ Y1 F2 x% Q2 ^/ _  n
       临床研究仍需摸索4 l- b5 `6 B; v' |4 Q
       虽然以上动物研究的结果都提示,FGF21对糖脂代谢的有益作用,但临床研究结果却与之不同。2008年Galman等发现,高甘油三酯血症患者的FGF21血清水平升高,经过非诺贝特治疗后,FGF21水平仍继续升高。同年香港大学学者对肥胖和糖尿患者群分别进行研究后发现,FGF21水平是代谢综合征的独立相关因素,血清FGF21水平与体重指数正相关。2009年国内研究结果显示,新诊断的2型糖尿病患者FGF21水平也显著升高。
6 _- i+ D' r' f" ~       2009年上海市糖尿病研究所也对不同人群的FGF21水平与糖脂代谢关系进行了相关研究。我们对134例正常糖调节、101例单纯空腹血糖升高和118例单纯糖耐量减退的人群测定血清FGF21水平;同时还对31例正常糖调节、17例单纯空腹血糖升高和15例单纯糖耐量减退的人群进行高葡萄糖钳夹试验,来研究FGF21与肥胖程度、血糖、血脂谱和肝酶的关系,及与胰岛素分泌和敏感性的关系。结果发现,单纯糖耐量减退患者FGF21水平显著升高,FGF21水平与胰岛素分泌和敏感性无关,而与甘油三酯、总胆固醇、γ-谷氨酰转移酶独立相关。故推测FGF21可能与非酒精性脂肪肝有关。这项研究结果已经于2009年6月发表至美国内分泌学会(ACCE)主办的《JCEM》。
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      虽然目前有关FGF21的研究未能解开最终“谜底”,FGF21确切生理作用仍不十分清楚,但鉴于其与糖脂代谢的密切联系,必将为人类认识代谢综合征和糖尿病的发病机制增添新的途径。5 A# m2 S# B" Q
http://www.craymeibio.com/news/show-70064.html

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/ {% J. @8 z- lOne injection stops diabetes in its tracks: Treatment reverses symptoms of type 2 diabetes in mice without side effects! c# Q- v' |9 g& L* d

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Date:July 16, 2014 Source:Salk Institute for Biological Studies
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In mice with diet-induced diabetes -- the equivalent of type 2 diabetes in humans -- a single injection of the protein FGF1 is enough to restore blood sugar levels to a healthy range for more than two days. The discovery could lead to a new generation of safer, more effective diabetes drugs. The team found that sustained treatment with the protein doesn't merely keep blood sugar under control, but also reverses insulin insensitivity, the underlying physiological cause of diabetes. Equally exciting, the newly developed treatment doesn't result in side effects common to most current diabetes treatments.
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In the liver tissue of obese animals with type 2 diabetes, unhealthy, fat-filled cells are prolific (small white cells, panel A). After chronic treatment through FGF1 injections, the liver cells successfully lose fat and absorb sugar from the bloodstream (small purple cells, panel B) and more closely resemble cells of normal, non-diabetic animals.
" e; f; F- d" }  OCredit: Courtesy of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies/ q* i, M. x& |( j3 C7 o. T
[Click to enlarge image]
  m' b8 o  Z# j" t: d3 w; K0 e( JIn mice with diet-induced diabetes -- the equivalent of type 2 diabetes in humans -- a single injection of the protein FGF1 is enough to restore blood sugar levels to a healthy range for more than two days. The discovery by Salk scientists, published today in the journal Nature, could lead to a new generation of safer, more effective diabetes drugs.% B/ C4 Q( n) C9 L" D" ^3 s
The team found that sustained treatment with the protein doesn't merely keep blood sugar under control, but also reverses insulin insensitivity, the underlying physiological cause of diabetes. Equally exciting, the newly developed treatment doesn't result in side effects common to most current diabetes treatments.; H, k5 l! O( o) ?; y/ j" R
"Controlling glucose is a dominant problem in our society," says Ronald M. Evans, director of Salk's Gene Expression Laboratory and corresponding author of the paper. "And FGF1 offers a new method to control glucose in a powerful and unexpected way."
1 {, f3 w' l% x+ Q: X1 Z1 G, x) LType 2 diabetes, which can be brought on by excess weight and inactivity, has skyrocketed over the past few decades in the United States and around the world. Almost 30 million Americans are estimated to have the disease, where glucose builds up in the bloodstream because not enough sugar-carting insulin is produced or because cells have become insulin-resistant, ignoring signals to absorb sugar. As a chronic disease, diabetes can cause serious health problems and has no specific cure. Rather it is managed -- with varying levels of success -- through a combination of diet, exercise and pharmaceuticals.
( q3 N  r+ p9 I% @: QDiabetes drugs currently on the market aim to boost insulin levels and reverse insulin resistance by changing expression levels of genes to lower glucose levels in the blood. But drugs, such as Byetta, which increase the body's production of insulin, can cause glucose levels to dip too low and lead to life-threatening hypoglycemia, as well as other side effects.
8 [2 C$ T# L4 fIn 2012, Evans and his colleagues discovered that a long-ignored growth factor had a hidden function: it helps the body respond to insulin. Unexpectedly, mice lacking the growth factor, called FGF1, quickly develop diabetes when placed on a high-fat diet, a finding suggesting that FGF1 played a key role in managing blood glucose levels. This led the researchers to wonder whether providing extra FGF1 to diabetic mice could affect symptoms of the disease.( m% W1 K6 X( [! J  B
Evans' team injected doses of FGF1 into obese mice with diabetes to assess the protein's potential impact on metabolism. Researchers were stunned by what happened: they found that with a single dose, blood sugar levels quickly dropped to normal levels in all the diabetic mice.
# N9 R- W& a! r8 ?* A1 _3 Y/ \"Many previous studies that injected FGF1 showed no effect on healthy mice," says Michael Downes, a senior staff scientist and co-corresponding author of the new work. "However, when we injected it into a diabetic mouse, we saw a dramatic improvement in glucose."
. B6 j( d9 ]2 [The researchers found that the FGF1 treatment had a number of advantages over the diabetes drug Actos, which is associated with side effects ranging from unwanted weight gain to dangerous heart and liver problems. Importantly, FGF1 -- even at high doses -- did not trigger these side effects or cause glucose levels to drop to dangerously low levels, a risk factor associated with many glucose-lowering agents. Instead, the injections restored the body's own ability to naturally regulate insulin and blood sugar levels, keeping glucose amounts within a safe range -- effectively reversing the core symptoms of diabetes.9 p& o  M% a' g0 b% W8 E% r' B
"With FGF1, we really haven't seen hypoglycemia or other common side effects," says Salk postdoctoral research fellow Jae Myoung Suh, a member of Evans' lab and first author of the new paper. "It may be that FGF1 leads to a more 'normal' type of response compared to other drugs because it metabolizes quickly in the body and targets certain cell types."; L7 D2 o* }% _. o# u5 ]
The mechanism of FGF1 still isn't fully understood -- nor is the mechanism of insulin resistance -- but Evans' group discovered that the protein's ability to stimulate growth is independent of its effect on glucose, bringing the protein a step closer to therapeutic use.% i7 i$ H8 V. ~) V5 w9 O: F
"There are many questions that emerge from this work and the avenues for investigating FGF1 in diabetes and metabolism are now wide open," Evans says. Pinning down the signaling pathways and receptors that FGF1 interacts with is one of the first questions he'd like to address. He's also planning human trials of FGF1 with collaborators, but it will take time to fine-tune the protein into a therapeutic drug.
# g# b$ C, l1 w  g: t"We want to move this to people by developing a new generation of FGF1 variants that solely affect glucose and not cell growth," he says. "If we can find the perfect variation, I think we will have on our hands a very new, very effective tool for glucose control."5 w8 N1 T$ l; ^8 Y
Other researchers on the study were Maryam Ahmadian, Eiji Yoshihara, Weiwei Fan, Yun-Qiang Yin, Ruth T. Yu, and Annette R. Atkins of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies; Weilin Liu, Johan W. Jonker, Theo van Dijk, and Rick Havinga of the University of Groningen; Christopher Liddle of the University of Sydney; Denise Lackey, Olivia Osborn, and Jerrold M. Olefsky of the University of California at San Diego; and Regina Goetz, Zhifeng Huang, and Moosa Mohammadi of the New York University School of Medicine.$ c, g9 x& x% N9 ]
Ronald Evans is a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator and is also supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health, the Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust, the Glenn Foundation for Medical Research, Ipsen/Biomeasure, CIRM, and the Ellison Medical Foundation. Other study authors received grants from the National Institutes of Health, the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, the European Research Council, the Human Frontier Science Program, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, and the Dutch Digestive Foundation.  y( ^! ~& @6 m3 ?
Story Source:
  f+ N" H  E( @/ u. Y) _, _The above story is based on materials provided by Salk Institute for Biological Studies. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.3 r) K9 e8 i, u: c$ g+ S" S5 W
Journal Reference:
3 y0 S+ F4 h% k, Z2 H0 ?Jae Myoung Suh, Johan W. Jonker, Maryam Ahmadian, Regina Goetz, Denise Lackey, Olivia Osborn, Zhifeng Huang, Weilin Liu, Eiji Yoshihara, Theo H. van Dijk, Rick Havinga, Weiwei Fan, Yun-Qiang Yin, Ruth T. Yu, Christopher Liddle, Annette R. Atkins, Jerrold M. Olefsky, Moosa Mohammadi, Michael Downes, Ronald M. Evans. Endocrinization of FGF1 produces a neomorphic and potent insulin sensitizer. Nature, 2014; DOI: 10.1038/nature13540

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